Thinking Empirically

Evidence to use in assessing the theories:

who are Congresspersons?

what are their socio-demographic characteristics?

what do they represent?

how does Congress operate?

what are the results of congressional action?

 
  There are 4 major aspects of Congress
which we will explore:

1) The tension between representation and lawmaking

2) How Congress operates

3) The Unwritten Rules of the Game

4) Presidential/ Congressional Relations

 
  Representation vs. Lawmaking

There are two basic questions to be answered:  

1) Is Congress's primary function to represent constituent views or to make laws?

  2) How does one adversely affect the other?

Types of Representation:

formal representation:

the procedures designed for choosing a representative
(ie. elections, apportionment, district size, etc.)

Apportionment
(the concept of distributing legislative seats to reflect population shifts after each census)

American mobility means that the population shifts quickly

After every census, states either gain or lose seats

the vehicle for reapportionment in each state varies and is generally a very political question

reapportionment raises the democratic issue of "one person, one vote"

Important Cases

Colegrove v. Green	1946	S. Court refuses to enter "the political thicket" of apportionment
Baker v. Carr	1962	Court argues reapportionment is not a "political" question but a constitutional one
Wesbury v. Sanders	1964	Court invalidated unequal congressional districts in Georgia stating unequal districts were a violation of the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment
Reynolds v. Sims	1964	Court ruled same notion applied to state legislative districts as well and demanded that both houses of a state legislature be apportioned equally

Gerrymandering

the drawing of an odd shaped legislative districts to achieve some partisan electoral advantage

Gomillion v. Lightfoot

1960

Court ruled that drawing up districts to exclude blacks voters from Tuskegee, Alabama city elections violated the 15th amendment (forbids a state to deny a person the right to vote because of race, color, or previous condition of servitude)

descriptive representation:

the extent to which the representative reflects the characteristics
of the people they formally represent

symbolic representation

if the constituents think the representative is acting
the ways her/his constituents want him/her to act


substantive representation: 

if a representative acts they way her/his constituents want him to act

Is there a way to study the interaction between
these forms of representation and behavior?


Descriptive Characteristics of Congresspersons

Overwhelmingly white (90%), male (88%),
older (about 60% over 50 years of age)
and wealthy (% depends on your definition of wealthy).

Dominated by the legal profession and representatives of the business community
 

  Occupational Characteristics of Congresspersons:

Occupation	House	Senate
Lawyer	52	58
Business	27	24
Education	7	2
Public service	4	6
Agriculture	4	9
other professional	6	0
Labor	1	0

by % from 1952-1996
 
 

Symbolic and Substantive Representation

Both are ascertained through public opinion research.

People think their representative represents them if the Congressperson votes "the right way" on a few key issue

Lack of public interest on non-key votes makes substantive representation harder to assess

 
  What are the key factors influencing how Congress operates?

1) seniority

2) the committee and subcommittee system

House

Committees

3) the lawmaking process:

How the legislative process works

 (Click on the above link to access the House of Representatives' Website!
They (try to) explain how the legislative process works!!)

4) congressional behavior:

a) Congressional Role Categories:

Representative Role:

trustee	allow representative to use her/his conscience
politico	combination of two dependent upon situation
delegate	reflect the demands of your constituency no matter what you believe

Interest group:   facilitator/  neutral/  resistor

Constituency role:  district/   state/    district or nation nation  

Bureaucratic role:  executive-oriented/  agency-oriented  

Structural role: expert/  leader/   committeeperson/   friend  

  b) "The Unwritten Rules of the Game in Congress"

 Specialization 

Become an expert in areas of interest to your constituents you request specific committee and subcommittee assignments you then become part of "the cozy or iron triangle"

 Apprenticeship 

Stay fairly quiet the first term and learn from your elders find a patron rule broken by the "class of '94"    

Show Horse vs. Work horse

Are you there for a long time? If so, get to be known as a conscientious and hard worker. You'll get good assignments and you'll curry favor with party leaders. In Congress as a stepping stone to other office? "Be more show than go!"  

Courtesy 

While legislating can be bitter and acrimonious, hold your temper and be courteous otherwise..... Don't do things that a challenger can use against the other congressperson (they could do the same to you!!!)   

Reciprocity

 Passing legislation is about "trading votes" With little party voting, congress-persons make individual deals: I'll vote for your bill, if you'll vote for mine!  

Honesty 

Vote trading is predicated upon being able to rely on each other to keep your bargains. The pluralist system in Congress would fall apart if deals couldn't be consummated. 

 Institutional Patriotism 

Never do anything to discredit the institution If you want a long career in this institution, remember that your power rises as the prestige of the institution rises Prestige=counterbalance to Presidency

    Congressional/ Presidential Relations  

discussed in greater detail after next section of course: 

1) the pendulum of power

 2) soured relationship in a era of "divided government" 

  The Pendulum of Power Between Congress and the President  

In exploring the power relationship between Congress and the President, it is helpful to think of the relationship as a pendulum swinging back and forth between a President who dominates Congress and a Congress that dominates the President.