Political Parties and
Elections in
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This webpage is designed to
introduce students to the concepts associated with a comparative approach to
the study of political parties.
Remember that there are a number of important concepts which we have
examined in POL 310. These include: approaches to
the study of political parties (sociological, institutional, and
competitive); the impact of cleavages on
party formation; the families of parties
(von Beyme); electoral
methods (plurality vs. proportional); and their consequences (proportionality/disproportionality). |
The Turkish party system experience
since 1950 provides us with a way of exploring these ideas
in a pragmatic/ realistic way.
First, a summary description of modern Turkey:
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A Quick Political History of Modern “Modern Turkey was founded in 1923
from the Anatolian remnants of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero
Mustafa KEMAL, who was later honored with the title Ataturk,
or "Father of the Turks." Under his authoritarian leadership, the
country adopted wide-ranging social, legal, and political reforms. After a
period of one-party rule, an experiment with
multi-party politics led to the 1950 election victory of the opposition
Democratic Party and the peaceful transfer of power.
Since then, Turkish political parties have multiplied, but democracy has been
fractured by periods of instability and intermittent military coups (1960,
1971, 1980), which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political
power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the ouster -
popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then
Islamic-oriented government…. A
separatist insurgency begun in 1984 by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) -
now known as the People's Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel
(KGK) - has dominated the Turkish military's attention and claimed more than
30,000 lives, but after the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the
insurgents largely withdrew from Turkey, mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004,
KGK announced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGK increased”.
(CIA Factbook) |
We can divide up the Turkish party
system’s historical development into 4 eras:
Pre-Party System Era (up to 1950)
First Party Era (1950-1960)
Second Party Era (1960- 1977)
Third Party Era (1981-the present)
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Pre-Party System Era Cleavage: Center-Periphery Defeated, shorn of much of its
former territory, and partly occupied by forces of the victorious European
states, the Ottoman structure is repudiated by Turkish nationalists who rally
under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal. In 1920 a
parliament is elected, dominated by the Andolu ve Rumeli Müdafaayı
Hukuk Cemiyeti
(Association of the Defence of the Rights of
Anatolia and Rumelia, ARMHC) of Kemal.
The temporal and religious ruling institutions of the old empire (the
sultanate and caliphate) are abolished and the empire is renamed in 1922 into
Turkey, first named Turkish State, renamed Turkish Republic in 1923. Kemal becomes president of the new Turkish state…. Kemal's followers inside the ARMHC found in 1923 the Halk Firkası (People's
Party, HF). The party is renamed Cumhuriyet Halk Firkası (Republican
People's Party, CHF) in 1924. He rules the country as a dictator and under
his leadership |
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Party Era One Cleavage: Center-Periphery Institutional: Plurality** Disproportionality: Extreme In 1950 |
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**Explanation of
Electoral Mechanism: The electoral mechanism was a plurality electoral system based upon voting for
party lists in multimember
districts. The party list which
obtained a plurality in the district was awarded all of the seats in that
district. |
Percentage of Votes
(1950-1957) with Seat in Parentheses
|
Party |
Name |
Spectrum Location |
|||
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CHP |
Republican People’s Party |
Center-Left |
39.9 (69) |
35.3 (30) |
41.1 (173) |
|
DP |
Democratic Party |
Center-Right |
53.3 (408) |
57.5 (490) |
42.9 (419) |
|
MP |
Nation Party |
Right |
3.0 (1) |
- |
- |
|
CMP |
Republican Nation Party |
Right |
|
4.8 (0) |
7.1 |
|
HP |
Freedom Party |
Center-Left |
|
.6 (5) |
3.8 (4) |
|
|
|
|
3.8 (9) |
1.8 (10) |
.1 (2) |
|
Type of |
Government |
|
Party |
Party |
Party |
|
ID |
Index of |
Disproportionality |
28.54 |
32.25 |
21.17 |
|
Election |
Turnout Rate |
% |
90.4 |
88.6 |
76.6 |
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Lesson from Party Era One:
The Problem with a Two-Party System The three parliamentary elections
in 1950, 1954 and 1957 resulted in victories for the DP. Thanks to the nature
of the electoral system, the DP’s electoral victories translated into
large parliamentary majorities. At
this time the system conformed to the basics of a two
party system: 1)
2 major parties (DP and CHP) captured the lion’s share of the votes 2)
government was formed by a majority party (DP); and 3)
the minor parties were limited and with little strength The Turkish party system differed
from two party systems in the 1)
there was no alteration of power
between the two parties; and
2)
there was a lack of stability in the
system as a whole “The polarization between the
government and the opposition did not stem from ideological conflicts between
the left and right, for both parties were close to
the center on the party spectrum.
Rather the intense conflicts between the DP and the CHP were largely
due to the practice of democracy….The DP grew arrogant with its electoral
victories and chose confrontation, rather than cooperation and compromise,
with the opposition”. To see a summary of the distribution
of preferences for the elections of the 1950s: click |
Military Coup/ DP outlawed/ Some leaders executed
New Constitution/ proportional representation
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Party Era Two Cleavage: Center-Periphery Institutional: Proportional Disproportionality: Low to Moderate In 1961 parliamentary democracy is
restored and Ismet Inönü
of the CHP becomes prime minister again. He loses confidence of parliament in
1965 and is forced to abdicate. Later that year the CHP loses the 1965
elections, bringing the AP with Süleyman Demirel to the premiership. The army still sees its role
as the custodian of the secular tradition and stages in 1971 a coup to bring down the government of Süleyman Demirel. After some
interim governments, the CHP wins the 1973 elections and forms a coalition
government under its leader Mustafa Bülent Ecevit. This government falls in 1974. Demirel becomes prime minister again. Between 1977 and
1979 Ecevit is prime minister and in 1979 Demirel becomes prime minister again. |
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**Explanation of
Electoral Mechanism: A proportional system based upon
the d’Hondt
largest average formula was adopted beginning in 1961. Modifications to the formula occurred after
virtually every election although the principle of proportionality was still key. |
Percentage of Votes
(1961-1977) with Seat in Parentheses
|
Party |
|
|
|||||
|
CHP |
Republican People’s Party |
Center-Left |
36.7 (173) |
28.7 (134) |
27.4 (143) |
31.3 (185) |
41.4 (213) |
|
MP |
Nation Party |
Right |
|
6.3 (31) |
3.2 (6) |
|
|
|
AP |
Justice Party |
Center-Right |
34.8 (158) |
52.9 (240) |
46.5 (256) |
29.8 (149) |
36.9 (189) |
|
CKMP |
Republican Peasant Nation Party |
Right |
14.0 (54) |
2.2 (11) |
|
|
|
|
CGP |
Republican Reliance Party |
Center-Right |
|
|
6.6 (15) |
5.3 (13) |
1.9 (3) |
|
DkP |
Democratic Party |
Center-Right |
|
|
|
11.9 (45) |
1.9 (1) |
|
TBP |
Turkish Unity Party |
Center-Left |
|
|
2.8 (8) |
1.1 (1) |
|
|
TIP |
Turkish Workers Party |
Left |
|
3.0 (14) |
2.7 (2) |
|
|
|
YTP |
New |
Center-Right |
13.7 (65) |
3.7 (19) |
2.2 (6) |
|
|
|
MHP |
Nationalist Action Party |
Right |
|
|
3.0 (1) |
3.4 (3) |
6.4 (16) |
|
MSP |
National Salvation Party |
Right |
|
|
|
11.8 (48) |
2.4 (24) |
|
Type of |
Government |
|
Coalition |
Party |
Party |
Coalition |
Coalition & Minority |
|
|
|
|
.8 (0) |
3.2 (1) |
5.6 (13) |
4.4 (6) |
2.9 (4) |
|
ID |
Index of |
Disproportionality |
2.0 |
2.34 |
9.11 |
7.0 |
5.98 |
|
Election |
Turnout |
Rate % |
81.4 |
71.3 |
64.3 |
66.8 |
72.4 |
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Party Era 3 Cleavage: Center-Periphery/ secular-Islam/ ethnic Institutional: Proportional with threshholds Disproportionality: Moderate to extreme In 1980 the army stages another coup. A new constitution
is written in 1982. It tried to address the problem of government formation
which had plagues The independent Saim Bülent Ülüsü becomes prime
minister and the regime allows elections in 1983. After the restoration of
civilian rule, Turgut Özal
of the Anavatan Partisi
(Motherland Party, ANaP) becomes prime minister. He
becomes president in 1989 and as prime minister he is succeeded by Yildirim Akbulut and in 1991 by
Ahmet Mesut Yilmaz. The Doğru Yol Partisi (True Path Party,
DYP), succesor of the AP, wins the 1991 elections
and Demirel beomes prime
minister again. In 1993 his co-partisan Tansu Çiller becomes prime minister. She is succeeded in 1996
by Yilmaz, leading a coalition of the AnaP with the DYP. When this coalition breaks down the
DYP joins a coalition with the islamist Refah Partisi (Welfare Party,
RP) under Necmettin Erbakan.
Under military pressure Erbakan steps down in 1997
and his party is banned in 1998. Yilmaz becomes prime minister again in a coalition with the social
democratic Demokratik Sol Partisi
(Democratic Left Party, DSP), the new party of Bülent
Ecevit. This coalitio
breaks down and Ecevit becomes prime minister in a
minority government. After the elections of 1999 he can form a coalition with
the AnaP and the nationalist Milliyetçi
Partisi (Nationalist Action Party, MHP). In 2001
the Fazilet Partisi,
successor of the RP is banned. One of the successors of this party is the
moderate islamic reformist Adalet
ve Kalkinma Partisi (Justice and Development Party, AKP) of Reçep Tayyıp Erdogan. Erdogan is banned from
politics, but the AKP captures in 2002 34.3% of the total votes. Since the AK
and CHP are the only parties to surpass the 10% threshold required to hold
seats in parliament, the AK has an huge majority in
parliament, making Abdullah Gül prime minister. He
is succeeded in 2003 by Erdogan. |
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**Explanation of
Electoral Mechanism: A proportional system based upon
the d’Hondt
largest average formula was still used although a threshold of 10% was
instituted. |
Percentage of Votes
(1983-1999) with Seat in Parentheses
|
Party |
|
|
2002 |
|||||
|
CHP |
Republican People’s Party |
Center-Left |
|
|
|
10.7 (49) |
8.7 |
19.4 (178) |
|
MHP |
Nationalist Action Party |
Right |
|
2.9 (0) |
|
8.2 (0) |
17.9 (126) |
8.3 (0) |
|
ANAP |
Motherland Party |
Center-Right |
45.1 (211) |
36.3 (292) |
24.0 (115) |
19.7 (132) |
13.2 (88) |
5.1 (0) |
|
HaP (1983) |
Populist Party |
|
30.5 (117) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
MDP |
Nationalist Democracy Party (tied to military regime) |
Center-Right |
23.3 (71) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
DSP (1985) |
Democratic Left Party |
Center-Left |
|
8.5 (0) |
10.8 (7) |
14.6 (76) |
22.2 (134) |
1.2 (0) |
|
DYP |
True Path Party (AP roots) |
Center-Right |
|
19.1 (59) |
27.1 (178) |
19.2 (135) |
12.0 (83) |
9.6 (0) |
|
RP |
Welfare Party |
Right |
|
7.2 (0) |
16.9 (62) |
21.4 (158) |
|
|
|
SHP |
Social Democratic Populist Party |
Center-Left |
|
24.7 (99) |
20.8 (88) |
|
|
|
|
HADEP |
Democratic People’s Party |
Kurdish Branch of DHP |
|
|
|
4.2 (0) |
4.8 (0) |
|
|
FP |
Virtue Party |
Right |
|
|
|
|
15.4 (102) |
|
|
AKP |
Justice and Development Party |
Islamic-Democratic |
|
|
|
|
|
34.3 (363) |
|
GP |
Youth Party |
Right |
|
|
|
|
|
7.2 (0) |
|
DHP |
Democratic People’s Party |
Kurdish Party |
|
|
|
|
|
6.2 (0) |
|
SP |
Felicity Party |
Islamist |
|
|
|
|
|
2.5 (0) |
|
YTP |
New |
Center |
|
|
|
|
|
1.0 (0) |
|
BBP |
Grand Unity Party |
Center |
|
|
|
|
|
1.1 (0) |
|
|
|
|
1.1 (0) |
4.3 (0) |
.5 (0) |
2.1 (0) |
5.8 (9) |
(9) |
|
Type of |
Government |
|
Party |
Party |
Coalition |
Coalition & Minority |
Coalition |
|
|
ID |
Index of |
Disproportionality |
6.9 |
22.29 |
11.29 |
10.27 |
14.09 |
|
|
Election |
Turnout |
Rate % |
92.3 |
93.3 |
83.9 |
82.3 |
87.1 |
|
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Effect of Electoral System Change on Party Development, Party Stability,
Government Formation and System Stability “Institutional arrangements
constitute another major source of change in the Turkish party system….Since
the beginning of multiparty politics, Turkey has experimented with both majoritarian and varieties of proportional electoral
systems….The use of the majoritarian plurality
system with multimember constituencies was a leading factor in the emergence
of a two party system in Turkey following the transition to democracy. Although it distorted the magnitude of the
DP’s electoral victories, the plurality system facilitated the formation of
majority party governments. The change
from majoritarian to a proportional electoral
system in 1961 had several important consequences. Proportional representation was partly
responsible for the increase in fragmentation that facilitated the transition
from a two-party to a moderate multiparty format. At the same time, after 1961, with the
exception of the 1965-1971 period, multiparty
coalitions replaced majority party government….The change in electoral
systems also affected the internal unity of parties. The plurality formula…discouraged
fissiparous tendencies within parties.
After 1961, the PR system had the opposite effect….The introduction of
the 10 percent national threshold in 1983 was intended to reduce
fragmentation in the party system, facilitate the formation of majority party
governments and contribute to political stability”. Sabri Sayari, “The Changing Party System” in Sayari and Esmer’s Politics,
Parties and Elections in |
Interesting Links:
The National Assembly of
Turkey